Following the disaster at Yarmuk in 636 CE, the Byzantine Empire – also known as the Eastern Roman Empire – lost much of its territory to the Arab invaders. By the early 8th century, the wealthy provinces of Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and North Africa were gone for good. With the imperial armies in full retreat, the Arabs moved into Anatolia, the Empire’s heartland. The capital of Constantinople went through two sieges but was saved by its impregnable walls. In the West, the Danubian frontier collapsed, allowing the Bulgars to carve their kingdom in the Balkans. Yet, Byzantium did not fall. Instead, it bounced back and moved to the offensive during the 9th and 10th centuries, doubling its size.

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